Showing posts with label #Propaganda. Show all posts
Showing posts with label #Propaganda. Show all posts

Saturday 7 September 2024

GUSTAVE LE BON - THE PSYCHOLOGY OF CROWDS

7 September 2024


GUSTAVE LE BON
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF CROWDS

Gustave Le Bon’s The Psychology of Crowds (1895) looks into how individuals behave differently when part of a crowd, losing their personal identity and rationality. Crowds, according to Le Bon, are driven by emotion rather than intellect, making them susceptible to manipulation by charismatic leaders who simplify complex ideas to create powerful, collective beliefs. This transformation allows individuals to act without personal responsibility, often leading to irrational or destructive behaviour.

Le Bon argues that crowds are guided by primal instincts, like aggression and violence, and are capable of extreme actions that defy social norms. He highlights how ideas, when adopted by a crowd, take on a near-religious significance, commanding devotion and becoming immune to critical thought or opposition. Leaders who project strength and authority can harness these emotions, shaping the crowd’s beliefs and actions.

Le Bon also warns of the invisible tyranny of collective thought, where individuals adopt ideas unconsciously, without questioning them. This makes crowds a powerful but dangerous force in society, influencing both positive and negative mass movements.

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Table of Contents

1. Introduction
   - Overview of Crowd Psychology
   - The Role of Crowds in Society

2. The Nature of Crowds
   - Psychological Transformation in Crowds
   - How Crowds Differ from Individuals

3. The Mentality of Crowds
   - Emotional Over Intellect
   - The Power of Suggestion
   - The Collective Unconscious

4. Crowd Dynamics
   - Unity and Cohesion in Crowds
   - Loss of Personal Responsibility
   - How Crowds Develop a Collective Will

5. The Role of Leaders in Crowds
   - Charismatic Leadership
   - Manipulating Crowds through Simplified Ideas
   - The Influence of Authority and Power

6. The Irrational Behaviour in Crowds
   - Aggression, Violence, and Primal Instincts
   - The Crowd’s Tendency Toward Destruction

7. The Religious Nature of Crowds
   - The Near-Religious Devotion to Ideas
   - How Simplified Ideas Become Sacred

8. The Contagion of Ideas and Emotions
   - How Emotions and Actions Spread in Crowds
   - Crowd Contagion versus Rational Thought

9. The Tyranny of the Crowd
   - The Invisible Influence of Collective Thought
   - The Loss of Individuality and Autonomy

10. The Dual Nature of Crowds
    - Crowds as a Force for Good and Evil
    - The Fickleness of Crowd Loyalty

11. The Legacy of Crowd Psychology
    - The Impact of Crowds on History and Society
    - The Lasting Influence of The Psychology of Crowds

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1. Introduction

- Overview of Crowd Psychology
- The Role of Crowds in Society

In his book La Psychologie des Foules, published in 1895, Gustave Le Bon writes: "The masses have never thirsted for truth. They turn away from evidence that does not suit them, preferring to deify error if it seduces them. He who can supply them with illusions becomes easily their master; he who attempts to destroy their illusions is always their victim."

An individual in a crowd is a grain of sand among other grains of sand, blown about by the wind at will. The exploration of crowd psychology, particularly in the 18th and 19th centuries, marked an important turning point in philosophical and social thought. The idea that individuals behave differently in a crowd than when alone became a major topic of interest, raising broader questions about the nature of human behaviour. 

Jean-Jacques Rousseau famously declared: "We have a very imperfect knowledge of the human heart if we do not also examine it in crowds." Similarly, Gustave Le Bon argued that to understand the true nature of history and human behaviour, one must first comprehend the dynamics of the crowd.

2. The Nature of Crowds

- Psychological Transformation in Crowds
- How Crowds Differ from Individuals

For Le Bon, a crowd is not merely a gathering of people; it is a psychological entity united by a common idea, belief, or ideology. Le Bon asserts that the cohesion of a crowd arises from a sort of psychological alchemy that fuses individuals into a single entity with its own will, fundamentally altering their behaviour and motivations. According to Le Bon, when an individual joins a crowd, they undergo a profound psychological transformation that erases their individuality. They no longer function as a distinct person but become part of the collective entity that is the crowd, losing their autonomy and merging into the group’s behaviour.

Le Bon describes this transformation by writing: "He is no longer himself, but has become an automaton who has ceased to be guided by his will as an individual." We often face the harsh reality of personal responsibility. Living as an individual means fully bearing the weight of our decisions, actions, and the inherent limitations of our own abilities. This can create an overwhelming burden, a persistent sense of insignificance and powerlessness that many find difficult to escape.

3. The Mentality of Crowds

- Emotional Over Intellect
- The Power of Suggestion
- The Collective Unconscious

When faced with the challenges of life, the solitary individual may feel small, powerless, and overwhelmed by the complexities and responsibilities of existence. However, when an individual joins a crowd or mass movement, something transformative happens. The weight of individual responsibility is lifted, at least temporarily, as the person merges into the larger entity of the crowd. In this collective environment, the individual’s personal burdens and limitations are absorbed by the energy and purpose of the group. The sense of isolation and powerlessness that once defined their experience as an individual is replaced by a powerful sense of belonging and shared strength.

4. Crowd Dynamics

- Unity and Cohesion in Crowds
- Loss of Personal Responsibility
- How Crowds Develop a Collective Will

Le Bon argues that in a crowd, even those who might normally feel ridiculous, ignorant, or envious are freed from their personal insignificance. Instead, they are imbued with a new perception of power—a power that is raw, temporary, but seemingly immense. He suggests that the forces that unite crowds are deeply rooted in the human psyche, exploiting a primal desire for connection, identity, and purpose. However, these same forces also make crowds highly susceptible to manipulation and capable of extreme behaviour that defies the norms of individual conduct.

5. The Role of Leaders in Crowds

- Charismatic Leadership
- Manipulating Crowds through Simplified Ideas
- The Influence of Authority and Power

Le Bon writes: "Isolated, he may be a cultured individual; in a crowd, he is a barbarian, that is, a creature acting by instinct." His exploration of crowd psychology looks into the darker side of human behaviour, revealing why crowds are often prone to acts of barbarism and immorality. While acknowledging that crowds are capable of both great good and great evil, Le Bon argues that more often than not, crowds tend toward the latter, engaging in destructive, irrational, and unethical actions. To explain this phenomenon, Le Bon contends that it stems from the primal instincts residing in every individual.

According to Le Bon, the human psyche retains the legacy of our ancestors—a collection of wild and destructive instincts that have been passed down through the ages. These instincts, such as aggression, violence, and a propensity for chaos, are remnants of a time when survival depended on such traits. In the life of the isolated individual, however, these instincts are generally contained by social norms, personal responsibility, and the fear of consequences. Acting on these base impulses in everyday life would not only be dangerous but would also lead to social ostracism, legal repercussions, and a host of other negative consequences that most individuals seek to avoid.

6. Irrational Behaviour in Crowds

- Aggression, Violence, and Primal Instincts
- The Crowd’s Tendency Toward Destruction

However, Le Bon argues that the crowd provides a kind of psychological camouflage, allowing individuals to blend in and lose their sense of personal identity. This absorption into the collective offers a powerful sense of anonymity and a perception of immunity from the usual consequences of their actions. In a crowd, individuals feel as though they are no longer acting as themselves. Instead, they become part of a larger, indistinct entity that assumes responsibility for their actions. This dissolution of the individual self into the crowd effectively lifts the constraints that normally govern behaviour.

Le Bon explains this in his book, writing: "Our wild and destructive instincts are the dormant legacy in all of us from primitive ages. In the life of the isolated individual, it would be dangerous for him to satisfy these instincts, while his absorption into an irresponsible crowd, where consequences are avoided, gives him complete freedom to follow them." He adds that the violence of crowd sentiment is also heightened, especially in heterogeneous crowds, by the absence of any sense of responsibility.

7. The Religious Nature of Crowds

- The Near-Religious Devotion to Ideas
- How Simplified Ideas Become Sacred

For Le Bon, history teaches us that from the moment the moral forces that underpinned a civilisation lose their strength, its final dissolution is triggered by these unconscious and brutal crowds, rightly referred to as "barbarians." Le Bon emphasises that within a crowd, every feeling and act is highly contagious. He asserts that emotions, ideas, and actions spread through a crowd like wildfire, unchecked by the rational discernment that would typically temper individual behaviour. This contagiousness is so powerful that it overrides self-interest, pushing individuals to sacrifice their own needs, goals, and desires for the sake of the collective interest.

He illustrates this point when he declares: "In a crowd, every feeling and every act is contagious, and contagious to such a degree that an individual willingly sacrifices his personal interest for the collective interest." In his work 'Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious', Carl Jung explains this phenomenon. He writes: "A group experience takes place on a lower level of consciousness than an individual experience. This is due to the fact that when many people gather to share a common emotion, the total psyche that emerges from the group is below the level of the individual psyche. If it is a very large group, the collective psyche will resemble more that of an animal, which explains why the ethical attitude of large organisations is always questionable."

Jung adds: "If people come together and form a crowd, then the dynamics of the collective man are unleashed—beasts or demons that lie dormant in each until they become part of a crowd. The man in the mass unconsciously descends to a lower moral and intellectual level, to a level that is always present beneath the threshold of consciousness, ready to emerge as soon as it is activated by the formation of a crowd."

8. The Contagion of Ideas and Emotions

- How Emotions and Actions Spread in Crowds
- Crowd Contagion versus Rational Thought

Thus, Le Bon’s description of crowds in his work is one where reason is eclipsed by emotion, where the collective mind is guided more by instinct than intellect, and where the lines between right and wrong blur in the fervour of collective action. As Le Bon saw it, a crowd is composed of individuals who are, by nature, mediocre in intellect and incapable of fully understanding the scope and depth of complex ideas in their original form. He writes: "How many crowds have faced death heroically for beliefs, ideas, and phrases they barely understood."

Le Bon explains that for an idea to resonate with a crowd, it must undergo a process of simplification. This transformation involves stripping the idea of its complexities, nuances, and intellectual subtlety to distil it into a more digestible and easily understood version. The crowd does not engage in the kind of critical analysis or reasoned debate one might expect from an individual thinker or a small group of intellectuals. Instead, it operates on a more emotional and instinctive level, drawn to ideas presented in a bold, clear, and often simplistic manner.

This necessity for simplification is not just about making the idea comprehensible; it is about making it compelling, memorable, and capable of eliciting a strong emotional response. Gustave Le Bon explains this by writing: "Ideas are only accessible to crowds after they have taken a very simple form. They must often undergo the most radical transformations to become popular. It is especially in the case of philosophical or scientific ideas of some elevation that we see how profound the modifications they must undergo to be lowered to the level of the crowd’s intelligence."

No matter how great or true an idea may have been at its origin, it is stripped of almost everything that constituted its elevation and grandeur simply by entering the intellectual range of crowds and exerting influence over them.

9. The Tyranny of the Crowd

- The Invisible Influence of Collective Thought
- The Loss of Individuality and Autonomy

According to Le Bon, when individuals in a crowd adopt simplified ideas, they do so not with a detached or rational mind, but with a fervent intensity similar to religious devotion. This attachment transforms ideas into powerful, almost sacred entities that command complete allegiance and devotion, regardless of whether the ideas themselves contain explicitly religious content.

Le Bon asserts that a person does not need to worship a traditional deity to exhibit religious behaviour. Instead, religiosity is characterised by the total submission of one’s will, the intense passion of fanaticism, and the unwavering commitment of all mental resources to a cause or an individual who becomes the focal point of one’s life. In the context of a crowd, the ideas that drive collective action are elevated to a status akin to that of mysterious deities. They are revered, protected, and followed with the blind faith and zeal one might associate with religious worship.

This quasi-religious relationship between a crowd and its guiding ideas can be observed in the way crowds react to challenges or critiques of those ideas. Just as devout followers might react to heresies against their faith, members of a crowd will defend their adopted beliefs with fervour, often disregarding reason or contrary evidence. The ideas are not to be questioned or dissected but accepted in their entirety and defended at all costs. The belief system of the crowd, even if rooted in atheism or secular ideologies, takes on the characteristics of a religious creed, with rituals, symbols, and an emotional commitment that transcends logic.

Le Bon observes that even non-belief or atheism, if adopted by the masses, could take on the outward forms of a religious cult. He writes: "If it were possible to induce the masses to adopt atheism, unbelief would exhibit all the intolerant ardour of a religious sentiment, and in its outward forms, would soon become a cult."

10. The Dual Nature of Crowds

- Crowds as a Force for Good and Evil
- The Fickleness of Crowd Loyalty

Moreover, the crowd’s relationship with its guiding ideas often involves ritualistic behaviour. These rituals may take the form of gatherings, chants, or other symbolic acts that reinforce the collective belief and strengthen the bonds between members. Such rituals serve to reaffirm the crowd’s commitment to its cause and solidify the emotional connection with the ideas at its core. This type of ritual reinforcement is another parallel with traditional religious practices, where repeated actions and symbols are used to maintain and deepen faith.

Gustave Le Bon argued that the ideas that influence and unite crowds do not originate from the crowd itself but from the minds of exceptional individuals—visionaries, leaders, and thinkers who stand apart from the masses. According to Le Bon, these great individuals possess the intellectual prowess and creative capacity to generate powerful ideas that have the potential to shape societies and movements. However, there is a crucial gap between the complexity of these original ideas and the collective mind of the crowd.

Le Bon asserts that the ideas used by leaders are not merely tools of persuasion; they are elevated to the status of mystical forces, almost divine in their power to captivate the minds of the masses. The vagueness and ambiguity of these ideas contribute to their mystique. They are not clearly defined or understood, which makes them all the more powerful. The crowd does not demand clarity or rational explanation. On the contrary, it is the very obscurity of these ideas that makes them captivating, as they fill the void of the unknown with wonder and awe.

This reverence for the mysterious does not stem from understanding but from a deeply ingrained tendency in humans to venerate what is not fully grasped. Le Bon observes that skilful leaders who manipulate these ideas wield immense power over crowds. They understand that the crowd does not respond to rational argument or gentle persuasion, but to symbols of authority, strength, and fear. Crowds display a docile respect for force and are unimpressed by kindness, which they perceive as weakness. This psychological trait makes crowds more responsive to leaders who project an image of power and domination rather than those who appeal to reason or benevolence.

11. The Legacy of Crowd Psychology

- The Impact of Crowds on History and Society
- The Lasting Influence of The Psychology of Crowds

The crowd longs for figures of authority who embody strength and determination, even if that strength takes the form of tyranny or oppression. However, Le Bon also highlights the fickle nature of crowd loyalty. The same leaders who are exalted and revered can quickly become the targets of scorn and derision if they lose their power. When a despot is stripped of authority, the crowd no longer sees them as a formidable figure, but as a mere mortal, vulnerable and weak. At that moment, the crowd’s respect turns to contempt as it tramples the fallen leader with the same fervour it once idolised them.

Le Bon argued that many of our actions are motivated by ideas and beliefs that are deeply rooted, often without our conscious awareness or understanding. We adopt ideologies and values not through a process of deliberate and critical examination, but through more automatic absorption from our environment, family, education, media, and cultural milieu.

Le Bon was convinced that the most insidious form of tyranny is not the visible and overt control exercised by external authorities, but the invisible and unconscious control that goes unexamined. He writes: "The tyranny exercised unconsciously over men’s minds is the only real tyranny, for it cannot be fought against."



Friday 6 September 2024

JACQUES ELLUL - THE FORMATION OF ATTITUDES

6 September 2024

Propaganda: The Formation of Men’s Attitudes by Jacques Ellul

French version below

In ‘The Formation of Men’s Attitudes’, Jacques Ellul examines how modern propaganda influences individuals and society. He argues that propaganda goes beyond persuasion, deeply altering people’s beliefs, actions, and identities by bypassing rational thought and appealing to emotions. It operates on a subconscious level, often unnoticed by those it affects, including the educated, who mistakenly believe they are immune. Ellul warns that propaganda is pervasive in democratic societies, shaping public opinion and creating false consensus, which ultimately undermines individual autonomy and critical thinking.


The Formation of Men’s Attitudes 
by Jacques Ellul

1. Introduction
   - The Nature of Propaganda
   - The Scope of Propaganda in Modern Society

2. The Definition of Propaganda
   - Distinguishing Propaganda from Persuasion
   - Propaganda’s Systematic Nature

3. The Impact of Propaganda on the Individual
   - How Propaganda Shapes Beliefs and Actions
   - The Cycle of Commitment in Propaganda
   - Propaganda’s Power to Reshape Identity

4. Psychological Mechanisms of Propaganda
   - Emotional Manipulation
   - Bypassing Rational Thought
   - Engaging the Unconscious Mind

5. The Role of Media in Propaganda
   - Mass Media as a Vehicle for Propaganda
   - Repetition and Saturation of Messages

6. Propaganda and Social Integration
   - Social Isolation and Reorganisation through Propaganda
   - Creating New Social Circles and Group Identities

7. Propaganda and Morality
   - Justifying Immoral Actions through Propaganda
   - The Cognitive Dissonance Trap

8. The All-Encompassing Power of Propaganda
   - How Propaganda Dominates Consciousness
   - The Control of Thoughts and Actions

9. The Deep Psychological Effects of Propaganda
   - How Propaganda Influences the Unconscious
   - Subtle Manipulation of Perception and Thought Processes

10. The Vulnerability of the Educated Class
    - The False Sense of Immunity among the Educated
    - Propaganda’s Effect on Intellectuals

11. Literacy and Propaganda
    - The Limits of Literacy in Combating Propaganda
    - Why Being Literate Does Not Equal Being Critical

12. Three Core Characteristics of Propaganda
    - Deliberate Construction by Propagandists
    - Rejection of Neutrality and Objectivity
    - Emotional and Psychological Tactics

13. Historical Examples of Propaganda
    - Nazi Propaganda under Joseph Goebbels
    - Manipulation of Facts and Truth

14. Political Propaganda
    - Vertical Propaganda: From Authority to the Masses
    - How Political Propaganda Shapes Public Opinion

15. The Use of Facts in Propaganda
    - Presenting True Facts to Support False Narratives
    - The Deceptive Use of Real Evidence

16. The Necessity of Propaganda in Modern Society
    - Why Propaganda Is Perceived as Necessary
    - The Role of Propaganda in Giving Meaning to World Events

17. Propaganda and the Decline of Democracy
    - How Propaganda Manipulates Democratic Processes
    - The Creation of False Consensus in Society

18. The Need for Public Awareness
    - Why Citizens Must Be Aware of Propaganda’s Influence
    - Propaganda as a Threat to Human Autonomy

19. Conclusion
    - The Critical Importance of Resisting Propaganda
    - Protecting Individuality and Independent Thought


Jacques Ellul's book titled ‘Propaganda: The Formation of Opinion’

1. Introduction

- The Nature of  Propaganda
- The Scope of Propaganda in Modern Society

In this book, Jacques Ellul issues stern warnings about the dangers posed by propaganda. For Ellul, propaganda is not limited to influencing or persuading; it has the power to destroy individuality and critical thinking, transforming individuals into mere receptacles of predefined messages.

He explains in his book that when an individual acts in obedience to propaganda, this action creates a deep commitment that cannot easily be undone. In other words, once a person has made a decision or acted according to the directives of propaganda, they find themselves in a situation where they can no longer turn back without questioning the legitimacy of their past actions. After acting in line with propaganda, the individual is forced to believe in this propaganda to justify their actions. If they do not, they risk perceiving their actions as absurd or unjust, which would be unbearable. As a result, they seek validation and authority from the propaganda to avoid cognitive dissonance.

2. The Definition of Propaganda

- Distinguishing Propaganda from Persuasion
- Propaganda’s Systematic Nature

Once someone starts acting according to propaganda, this action often leads to other actions. Having made an initial decision in that direction compels the individual to continue down that path, as one action calls for more actions. This creates a cycle of commitment where each additional step strengthens the initial engagement.

By following propaganda, the individual takes a specific place in society. They may find themselves estranged from their former social circle or family. They are often forced to accept new social circles created by the propaganda. This social reorganisation reinforces their involvement in the propagandist system.

3. The Impact of Propaganda on the Individual

- How Propaganda Shapes Beliefs and Actions
- The Cycle of Commitment in Propaganda
- Propaganda’s Power to Reshape Identity

If the individual has acted against moral norms or disrupted the established order, they feel a need to justify their actions to avoid discomfort and guilt. They continue repeating their actions to prove their correctness. This contributes to their deepening commitment to propaganda. As the individual becomes more involved, propaganda eventually occupies their entire consciousness. It becomes dominant and controlling, dictating their thoughts and actions.

4. Psychological Mechanisms of Propaganda.

- Emotional Manipulation
- Bypassing Rational Thought
- Engaging the Unconscious Mind

Ellul explains that for propaganda to be truly effective, it must succeed in bypassing conscious processes of reflection and decision-making. This means it must influence individuals not in an obvious and direct way, but by acting on much deeper levels of their psyche, that is, at the unconscious level.

5. The Role of Media in Propaganda

- Mass Media as a Vehicle for Propaganda
- Repetition and Saturation of Messages

The main objective is for people not to realise they are being influenced by external forces. Instead, propaganda aims to reach a core part of the unconscious, which, once activated, will trigger the expected reactions and behaviours. The key to this strategy is that when propaganda reaches and influences the unconscious, it doesn’t just inform; it changes the way you perceive and react to information. By avoiding direct confrontation with rational arguments, it subtly infiltrates thought processes, making these influences invisible to those it seeks to manipulate.

6. Propaganda and Social Integration

- Social Isolation and Reorganisation through Propaganda
- Creating New Social Circles and Group Identities

Jacques Ellul offers a description of the individual whose personality has been profoundly influenced by propaganda. He describes a person who, under the influence of such an omnipresent message, has lost their ability to think independently. He writes: “When they recite their propaganda lesson and say they think for themselves, when their eyes see nothing, and their mouth produces only sounds previously engraved in their brain, when they say they are expressing their judgment, then they truly demonstrate that they no longer think at all, ever, and that they no longer exist as a person."

7. Propaganda and Morality

- Justifying Immoral Actions through Propaganda
- The Cognitive Dissonance Trap

Similarly, Joseph Goebbels once declared: “It would not be impossible to prove, through sufficient repetition and psychological understanding of the people involved, that a square is actually a circle. These are just words, and words can be shaped until they dress up ideas and disguise them.”

8. The All-Encompassing Power of Propaganda

- How Propaganda Dominates Consciousness
- The Control of Thoughts and Actions

Indeed, one might think that only naive or uneducated people would be susceptible to being manipulated by propaganda. However, Ellul reveals that this idea is misleading. He highlights a fundamental weakness in educated people regarding propaganda. According to him, these individuals, convinced of their own intellectual superiority and immunity to persuasion techniques, are actually very vulnerable to propaganda. He writes: “Naturally, the educated man does not believe in propaganda. He shrugs his shoulders and is convinced that propaganda has no effect on him. This is, in fact, one of his greatest weaknesses.” Propagandists are well aware that to reach someone, they must first convince them that propaganda is ineffective and unintelligent. Because they are convinced of their own superiority, intellectuals are much more vulnerable than anyone else to this manoeuvre.

9. The Deep Psychological Effects of Propaganda

- How Propaganda Influences the Unconscious
- Subtle Manipulation of Perception and Thought Processes

Even though, in reality, great intelligence, extensive education, constant critical thinking, and complete, objective information remain the best weapons against propaganda, historically, societies have celebrated the reduction of illiteracy as a great achievement. A belief persists that reading is a fundamental path to freedom and enlightenment. According to Ellul, this view is simplistic and somewhat misleading. He argues that the mere ability to read does not equate to true intellectual progress. The issue is not just knowing how to decode words, but rather understanding, reflecting, and judging the content that one reads.

10. The Vulnerability of the Educated Class

- The False Sense of Immunity among the Educated
- Propaganda’s Effect on Intellectuals

Ellul highlights a significant paradox when it comes to the educated class and their susceptibility to propaganda. Many educated individuals believe that their intellectualism and critical thinking skills make them immune to the effects of propaganda. This false sense of security, Ellul argues, makes them particularly vulnerable. Educated people often dismiss the idea that propaganda could influence them, assuming that it only affects those who are less informed or less intelligent.

However, this very belief in their immunity becomes their weakness. Propagandists are well aware of this psychological vulnerability and exploit it. They often tailor propaganda to appeal to the intellectual pride of the educated class, subtly manipulating their perspectives without them realising it. Intellectuals, who are convinced of their own superiority, are often more easily influenced because they do not recognise when they are being targeted.

Ellul explains that great intelligence, extensive education, and even a constant engagement in critical thinking do not necessarily protect individuals from propaganda. Instead, the more educated a person is, the more sophisticated the propaganda needs to be to reach them. The result is that even the most intellectually gifted individuals can be swayed by propaganda if it aligns with their pre-existing beliefs or flatters their sense of superiority. This makes the educated class a prime target for propaganda efforts, as they are often the opinion-makers and leaders in society, whose influence can spread propaganda further.

11. Literacy and Propaganda

- The Limits of Literacy in Combating Propaganda
- Why Being Literate Does Not Equal Being Critical

Ellul notes that a large part of the population, potentially up to 90%, knows how to read but does not use their intelligence beyond this basic skill. These individuals may attribute excessive authority to printed words or reject them entirely, often due to a lack of critical knowledge and discernment. This makes them particularly vulnerable to propaganda.

Propaganda thrives on the fact that many people, who are literate but not critically engaged, will take information at face value without questioning it. These individuals are more likely to consume content that aligns with their pre-existing beliefs or is presented in a simplistic manner. Ellul also observes that these people often choose reading material that is straightforward and requires minimal cognitive effort.

Ellul also points out that being literate and well-read does not equate to being critically engaged with the material. Many educated individuals consume vast amounts of information without fully analysing or questioning its source, content, or intent. This can lead to a passive acceptance of propaganda, where they fail to apply their critical thinking skills to the information they are presented with, believing they are too informed to be misled.

In conclusion, the vulnerability of the educated class lies in their false confidence in their intellectual immunity to propaganda. This makes them more susceptible to subtle forms of manipulation, which, in turn, can have a profound impact on society as they influence the opinions of others.

12. Three Core Characteristics of Propaganda

- Deliberate Construction by Propagandists
- Rejection of Neutrality and Objectivity
- Emotional and Psychological Tactics

At the heart of propaganda are three defining characteristics that distinguish it from mere information or persuasion. First, propaganda is deliberately crafted by individuals or groups known as propagandists. These architects of influence meticulously construct messages with a single goal: to orchestrate public opinion in line with their own objectives. Whether during times of war, political upheaval, or social change, propagandists seek to manipulate beliefs and behaviours to serve their interests.

Secondly, and perhaps more insidiously, propaganda rejects neutrality and avoids balanced discourse in favour of unapologetic bias. It selects facts and truths to create a narrative that supports a specific point of view. The regime of Adolf Hitler, under the direction of Joseph Goebbels, is a prime example of this approach. During the Third Reich, Goebbels succinctly expressed the essence of propaganda: “The function of propaganda is not to undertake an objective study of the truth, but to serve our own right, always and unwaveringly.”

Thirdly, propaganda employs a powerful arsenal of psychological tactics. It doesn’t merely inform; it manipulates emotions, exploits prejudices, and cleverly hides its persuasive intent. By appealing to primal instincts and tapping into deeply ingrained fears or desires, propagandists aim to create an illusion of personal choice. This illusion is essential because it convinces individuals that the ideas or actions they adopt stem from their own will, thus reinforcing the perceived legitimacy and authenticity of the propagated message.

13. Historical Examples of Propaganda

- Nazi Propaganda under Joseph Goebbels
- Manipulation of Facts and Truth

Ellul explains that modern man does not think about current problems, he feels them; he reacts, but he does not truly understand them or assume responsibility for them. He is even less capable of spotting inconsistencies between successive facts. Man's capacity to forget is unlimited. This is one of the most important and useful points for the propagandist, who can always be sure that a particular propaganda theme, statement, or event will be forgotten within a few weeks. Ellul adds that what is needed then is continuous artificial agitation, even when nothing in current events justifies or arouses excitement. Thus, continuous propaganda must first slowly create a climate, then prevent the individual from noticing a particular propaganda operation against the backdrop of ordinary daily events. Adherence to ideology happens naturally.

14. Political Propaganda

- Vertical Propaganda: From Authority to the Masses
- How Political Propaganda Shapes Public Opinion

Ellul explains: those who read their group’s press and listen to their group’s radio are constantly reinforced in their allegiance. They increasingly learn that their group is right, that its actions are justified. Thus, their beliefs are strengthened. At the same time, this propaganda contains elements of critique and refutation of other groups, which will never be read or heard by members of another group. Thus, we witness the establishment of a closed mindset, a world where everyone speaks only to themselves, constantly reaffirming their own certainty about themselves and the injustices done to them by others, a world where no one listens to others.

Ellul adds that the propagandist will not merely accuse the enemy of every wrongdoing; he will accuse them of intending and attempting to commit the crime that he himself plans to commit. The one who wants to provoke a war proclaims not only his own peaceful intentions but also accuses the other party of provocation. The one who uses concentration camps accuses his neighbour of doing the same. The one who intends to establish a dictatorship always insists that his opponents aspire to dictatorship. The accusation directed against the other’s intentions clearly reveals the accuser’s own intentions.

15. The Use of Facts in Propaganda

- Presenting True Facts to Support False Narratives
- The Deceptive Use of Real Evidence

Political propaganda is what Jacques Ellul describes as vertical propaganda. It is called vertical because it emanates from a position of authority, directed downwards towards the general population. Political propaganda is crafted and controlled by those who hold power, whether political leaders, state officials, or influential figures within a political party. These entities have the authority and resources needed to create and disseminate propaganda. The creation of political propaganda often takes place behind the scenes, in political or governmental circles. The methods used are centralised and involve sophisticated mass communication techniques. This ensures that the message reaches a wide audience while maintaining a high degree of control over its presentation and reception. Those who design and implement political propaganda are generally removed from the general public. They operate from afar, detached from the everyday experiences and perspectives of ordinary people whom they seek to influence.

It is common to assume that political propaganda mainly consists of lies, fabrications, and extreme distortions of reality. One of the most famous quotes on this subject comes from Adolf Hitler, who claimed that "the bigger the lie, the more likely it is to be believed." Similarly, Arthur Ponsonby, in his book *Falsehood in Wartime*, wrote: “When war is declared, truth is the first casualty.” However, as Jacques Ellul points out, while political propaganda may sometimes include big lies, modern political propagandists often rely on real facts. In other words, true facts are selected and presented to the public, but only to support and reinforce false interpretations or distort events. This tactic is based on sophisticated reasoning: if someone questions the interpretation put forward by the propagandist, the latter can provide evidence that the facts presented were indeed real. Consequently, the public is deceived into believing that the interpretations must also be true, since the facts supporting them are authentic.

16. The Necessity of Propaganda in Modern Society

- Why Propaganda Is Perceived as Necessary
- The Role of Propaganda in Giving Meaning to World Events

Ellul expresses this idea clearly: “Propaganda is necessarily false when it interprets and colours facts and gives them meaning. It is true when it presents raw facts, but only to establish a supposed truth and only as an example of the interpretation it supports with that fact.”

It might seem obvious to think that the masses would be in a better situation if they were exempted from political propaganda. This idea seems reasonable at first glance: less propaganda would mean less manipulation, less external influence, and thus a more enlightened and autonomous population. However, Jacques Ellul strongly disagrees with this perspective. According to him, political propaganda plays an essential role in imposing meaning and intelligibility on what we perceive as the chaotic course of world events. In the past, when societies faced upheaval or uncertainty, they often turned to the Church to provide explanations and give meaning to events. The Church, with its spiritual and moral authority, offered narratives and interpretive frameworks to understand the world.

17. Propaganda and the Decline of Democracy

- How Propaganda Manipulates Democratic Processes
- The Creation of False Consensus in Society

Today, Ellul argues that this role of explanation and structuring of the world has largely been transferred to politicians. Political propagandists, in particular, play a crucial role in this process. They create narratives that give specific meaning to history and contemporary events, often placing the state or regime in a quasi-divine position.

Ellul explains: “Propaganda eliminates the anxiety that arises from irrational and disproportionate fears by giving man assurances equivalent to those once provided by religion. It offers him a simple and clear explanation of the world in which he lives, certainly a false explanation far removed from reality, but an explanation that is obvious and satisfying. It gives him a key with which he can open every door. There is no more mystery; everything can be explained through propaganda. It gives him special glasses through which he can view current history and clearly understand what it means. It provides him with a guiding thread with which he can follow the coherent narrative through all the disjointed events. Thus, the world ceases to be hostile and threatening.”

18. The Need for Public Awareness

- Why Citizens Must Be Aware of Propaganda’s Influence
- Propaganda as a Threat to Human Autonomy

According to Ellul, modern propaganda has the potential to degrade the democratic process in insidious ways. He explains: “The goal is to ensure that the masses demand from the government what the government has already decided to do. If the government follows this procedure, it can no longer be labelled authoritarian, because the people’s will is demanding what is already being implemented.

Democracy rests on a fundamental principle: the idea that the voting population has a direct influence on the policies implemented by the government. In theory, citizens exercise their power through voting, by choosing representatives and influencing political decisions that affect their daily lives.

Ellul explains that propaganda becomes a mechanism by which democratic governments can circumvent popular will. This phenomenon unfolds in two main stages: first, policymakers develop policies independently of public opinion. Once policies are defined and implemented by those in power, propaganda comes into play to shape and manipulate public opinion. The role of propaganda in this context is no longer to present facts objectively but to create an environment where citizens not only accept but desire what the government has already decided to do.

In other words, propaganda is used to convince people that the political decisions made are the best possible and that they align with their own desires, even if this is not actually the case. Ellul observes that this dynamic profoundly transforms the nature of democracy. Citizens’ trust in the democratic process can erode, as they feel increasingly manipulated and disconnected from the political decisions that affect them. Citizens may falsely believe they are actively participating in the political process, whereas in reality, their opinions are shaped to support pre-determined policies. By steering public opinion towards acceptance of imposed policies, propaganda creates a kind of false consensus that does not necessarily reflect voters’ true preferences.

19. Conclusion

    - The Critical Importance of Resisting Propaganda
    - Protecting Individuality and Independent Thought

Jacques Ellul’s aim in writing his book was to warn the public of the real and profound dangers that propaganda represents for society and individuals. For him, criticism of propaganda is essential, not to blindly condemn the system in place, but to enlighten citizens about the mechanisms of manipulation to which they are exposed. He explains: “Warning a political system of the threat it faces does not mean attacking that system, but it is the greatest service that can be rendered to it. The same applies to man. To warn him of his weakness is not to try to destroy him, but rather to encourage him to strengthen himself. I insist that issuing such a warning is an act of defence of man, that I do not judge propaganda with Olympian detachment, and that having suffered, felt, and analysed the impact of propaganda’s power on myself, having been many times, and still today being the object of propaganda, I want to speak of it as a threat that endangers the entire personality.


Le livre de Jacques Ellul intitulé ‘Propagande, la formation de l'opinion’

Il fait des avertissements sévères sur les dangers que représente la propagande. Pour Ellul, la propagande ne se limite pas à influencer ou persuader ; elle a le pouvoir de détruire l'individualité et la pensée critique, transformant les individus en simples réceptacles de messages prédéfinis. 

Il explique dans son livre que, lorsqu'un individu agit en obéissant à la propagande, cette action crée un engagement profond qui ne peut pas être facilement annulé. En d'autres termes, une fois qu'une personne a pris une décision ou a agi selon les directives de la propagande, elle se trouve dans une situation où elle ne peut plus revenir en arrière sans remettre en question toute la légitimité de ces actions passées. Après avoir agi conformément à la propagande, l'individu se voit contraint de croire en cette propagande pour justifier ses actions. S'il ne le fait pas, il risquerait de percevoir ses actions comme absurdes ou injustes, ce qui serait insupportable. Par conséquent, il cherche à obtenir une validation et une autorité de la part de la propagande pour éviter la dissonance cognitive.

Une fois que quelqu'un a commencé à agir selon la propagande, cette action entraîne souvent d'autres actions. Le fait d'avoir pris une première décision dans cette direction oblige l'individu à continuer sur cette voie, car l'action appelle davantage d'actions. Cela crée un cycle d'engagement où chaque étape supplémentaire renforce l'engagement initial. 

En suivant la propagande, l'individu prend une place spécifique dans la société. Il peut se retrouver à l'écart de son ancien entourage ou de sa famille. Il se voit souvent obligé d'accepter de nouveaux cercles sociaux créés par la propagande. Cette réorganisation sociale renforce son implication dans le système propagandiste.

Si l'individu a agi contre des normes morales ou a perturbé l'ordre établi, il ressent un besoin de justifier ses actes pour éviter le malaise et la culpabilité. Il continue de répéter ses actions pour prouver leur justesse. Cela contribue à son engagement de plus en plus profond dans la propagande. À mesure que l'individu s'engage davantage, la propagande finit par occuper tout l'espace de sa conscience. Elle devient dominante et contrôlante, dictant ses pensées et ses actions. 

Ellul explique que, pour que la propagande soit réellement efficace, elle doit réussir à contourner les processus de réflexion et de décision conscients. Cela signifie qu'elle doit influencer les individus non pas de manière évidente et directe, mais en agissant sur des niveaux beaucoup plus profonds de leur psyché, c'est-à-dire au niveau de l'inconscient.

L'objectif principal est que les personnes ne réalisent pas qu'elles sont en train d'être influencées par des forces extérieures. Au lieu de cela, la propagande vise à atteindre un noyau central de l'inconscient qui, une fois activé, provoquera les réactions et les comportements attendus. La clé de cette stratégie est que, lorsque la propagande atteint et influence l'inconscient, elle ne se contente pas d'informer ; elle modifie la manière dont vous percevez et réagissez aux informations. En évitant la confrontation directe avec des arguments rationnels, elle s'immisce subtilement dans les processus de pensée, rendant ces influences invisibles aux yeux de ceux qu'elle cherche à manipuler.

Jacques Ellul offre une description de l'individu dont la personnalité a été profondément influencée par la propagande. Il décrit une personne qui, sous l'influence d'un tel message omniprésent, a perdu sa capacité à penser de manière indépendante. Il écrit : "Lorsqu'il récite sa leçon de propagande et dit qu'il pense par lui-même, lorsque ses yeux ne voient rien et que sa bouche ne produit que des sons préalablement gravés dans son cerveau, lorsqu'il dit qu'il exprime effectivement son jugement, alors il démontre vraiment qu'il ne pense plus du tout, jamais, et qu'il n'existe pas en tant que personne.

De manière similaire, Joseph Goebbels avait déclaré : "Il ne serait pas impossible de prouver, par une répétition suffisante et une compréhension psychologique des personnes concernées, qu'un carré est en réalité un cercle. Ce ne sont que des mots, et les mots peuvent être façonnés jusqu'à ce qu'ils habillent les idées et les déguisent."

On pourrait en effet penser que seules les personnes naïves ou peu cultivées seraient susceptibles d'être manipulées par la propagande. Cependant, Ellul révèle que cette idée est trompeuse. Il souligne une faiblesse fondamentale chez les personnes éduquées vis-à-vis de la propagande. Selon lui, ces individus, convaincus de leur propre supériorité intellectuelle et de leur immunité contre les techniques de persuasion, sont en réalité très vulnérables à la propagande. Il écrit : "Naturellement, l'homme éduqué ne croit pas à la propagande. Il hausse les épaules et est convaincu que la propagande n'a aucun effet sur lui. C'est, en fait, l'une de ses grandes faiblesses." Les propagandistes sont bien conscients que, pour atteindre quelqu'un, il faut d'abord le convaincre que la propagande est inefficace et peu intelligente. Parce qu'il est convaincu de sa propre supériorité, l'intellectuel est beaucoup plus vulnérable que quiconque à cette manœuvre.

Même si, en réalité, une grande intelligence, une culture étendue, un exercice constant des facultés critiques et une information complète et objective restent les meilleures armes contre la propagande, historiquement, les sociétés ont célébré la réduction de l'analphabétisme comme un grand accomplissement. Il persiste une croyance selon laquelle la lecture est un chemin fondamental vers la liberté et l'illumination. Selon Ellul, cette vision est simpliste et quelque peu trompeuse. Il soutient que la simple capacité de lire ne correspond pas à un véritable progrès intellectuel. L'enjeu n'est pas seulement de savoir déchiffrer des mots, mais plutôt de comprendre, réfléchir et juger le contenu que l'on lit.

Bien que l'éducation primaire puisse enseigner aux individus comment lire, elle ne les équipe souvent pas avec les outils nécessaires pour une réflexion approfondie et une analyse critique de ce qu'ils lisent. Ellul note qu'une grande partie de la population, potentiellement jusqu'à 90 %, sait lire mais n'utilise pas son intelligence au-delà de cette compétence de base. Ces individus peuvent attribuer une autorité excessive aux mots imprimés ou les rejeter complètement, souvent en raison d'un manque de connaissances critiques et de discernement. Cela les rend particulièrement vulnérables à la propagande.

La propagande prospère sur le fait que de nombreuses personnes, qui sont lettrées mais non engagées de manière critique, accepteront l'information pour argent comptant, sans la questionner. Ces individus sont plus susceptibles de consommer du contenu qui correspond à leurs croyances préexistantes ou qui est présenté de manière simpliste. Ellul observe également que ces personnes choisissent souvent du matériel de lecture qui est direct et qui nécessite un effort cognitif minimal.

Au cœur de la propagande se trouvent trois caractéristiques définissant ce qui la distingue de la simple information ou persuasion. Tout d'abord, la propagande est élaborée délibérément par des individus ou des groupes connus sous le nom de propagandistes. Ces architectes de l'influence construisent minutieusement des messages avec un objectif unique : orchestrer l'opinion publique en accord avec leurs propres objectifs. Que ce soit en temps de guerre, de bouleversements politiques ou de changement social, les propagandistes cherchent à manipuler les croyances et les comportements pour servir leurs intérêts.

Deuxièmement, et peut-être de manière plus insidieuse, la propagande rejette la neutralité et évite le discours équilibré au profit d'un parti pris sans réserve. Elle sélectionne des faits et des vérités pour créer un récit qui favorise un point de vue spécifique. Le régime d'Adolf Hitler, sous la direction de Joseph Goebbels, illustre bien cette approche. Pendant le Troisième Reich, Goebbels a exprimé l'essence de la propagande de manière concise : "La fonction de la propagande est de ne pas faire une étude objective de la vérité, mais de servir notre propre droit, toujours et sans faiblir."

Troisièmement, la propagande utilise un puissant arsenal de tactiques psychologiques. Elle ne se contente pas d'informer ; elle manipule les émotions, exploite les préjugés et dissimule habilement son intention persuasive. En faisant appel à des instincts primordiaux et en exploitant des peurs ou des désirs profondément ancrés, les propagandistes cherchent à créer une illusion de choix personnel. Cette illusion est essentielle, car elle convainc les individus que les idées ou actions qu'ils adoptent proviennent de leur propre volonté, renforçant ainsi la légitimité et l'authenticité perçue du message propagé.

Ellul explique que l'homme moderne ne réfléchit pas aux problèmes actuels, il les ressent ; il réagit, mais il ne les comprend pas davantage, qu'il n'en assume la responsabilité. Il est encore moins capable de repérer toute incohérence entre des faits successifs. La capacité de l'homme à oublier est illimitée. C'est l'un des points les plus importants et les plus utiles pour le propagandiste, qui peut toujours être sûr qu'un thème de propagande, une

 déclaration ou un événement particulier sera oublié dans quelques semaines. Il ajoute que ce qu'il faut alors, c'est une agitation continue, produite artificiellement, même lorsque rien dans les événements du jour ne justifie ou ne suscite d'excitation. Ainsi, la propagande continue doit d'abord créer lentement un climat, puis empêcher l'individu de remarquer une opération de propagande particulière par rapport aux événements quotidiens ordinaires. L'adhésion à l'idéologie se fait naturellement.

Ellul explique : ceux qui lisent la presse de leur groupe et écoutent la radio de leur groupe sont constamment renforcés dans leur allégeance. Ils apprennent de plus en plus que leur groupe a raison, que ses actions sont justifiées. Ainsi, leurs croyances se renforcent. En même temps, cette propagande contient des éléments de critique et de réfutation des autres groupes, qui ne seront jamais lus ou entendus par un membre d'un autre groupe. Ainsi, nous voyons sous nos yeux un monde de mentalité fermée s'installer, un monde où chacun parle à lui-même, où chacun voit constamment sa propre certitude sur lui-même et les injustices que lui ont faites les autres, un monde où personne n'écoute les autres.

Ellul ajoute que le propagandiste ne se contentera pas d'accuser l'ennemi de tout méfait ; il l'accusera d'avoir l'intention et d'essayer de commettre le crime qu'il prévoit lui-même de commettre. Celui qui veut provoquer une guerre proclame non seulement ses propres intentions pacifiques, mais accuse également l'autre partie de provocation. Celui qui utilise des camps de concentration accuse son voisin d'en faire autant. Celui qui entend établir une dictature insiste toujours sur le fait que ses adversaires aspirent à la dictature. L'accusation dirigée contre les intentions de l'autre révèle clairement les intentions de l'accusateur.

La propagande politique est ce que Jacques Ellul décrit comme une propagande verticale. On l'appelle verticale parce qu'elle émane d'une position d'autorité, dirigée vers le bas, vers la population générale. La propagande politique est élaborée et contrôlée par ceux qui détiennent le pouvoir, qu'il s'agisse de dirigeants politiques, de fonctionnaires d'État ou de figures influentes au sein d'un parti politique. Ces entités ont l'autorité et les ressources nécessaires pour créer et diffuser la propagande. La création de la propagande politique se fait souvent en coulisses, dans des cercles politiques ou gouvernementaux. Les méthodes utilisées sont centralisées et impliquent des techniques sophistiquées de communication de masse. Cela garantit que le message atteint un large public tout en maintenant un haut degré de contrôle sur sa présentation et sa réception. Ceux qui conçoivent et mettent en œuvre la propagande politique sont généralement externes au grand public. Ils opèrent de loin, éloignés des expériences et des perspectives quotidiennes des personnes ordinaires qu'ils cherchent à influencer.

Il est fréquent de supposer que la propagande politique se compose principalement de mensonges, de fabrications et de distorsions extrêmes de la réalité. L'une des citations les plus célèbres à ce sujet provient d'Adolf Hitler, qui affirmait que "plus le mensonge est gros, plus il est probable qu'il soit cru". De même, Arthur Ponsonby, dans son ouvrage *Falsehood in Wartime*, écrivait : "Lorsque la guerre est déclarée, la vérité est la première victime." Cependant, comme l'a souligné Jacques Ellul, bien que la propagande politique puisse parfois inclure des gros mensonges, les propagandistes politiques modernes ont souvent recours à des faits réels. En d'autres termes, les faits véritables sont sélectionnés et présentés au public, mais uniquement dans le but de soutenir et de renforcer des interprétations fausses ou de déformer des événements. Cette tactique repose sur un raisonnement sophistiqué : si quelqu'un remet en question l'interprétation avancée par le propagandiste, ce dernier peut fournir des preuves que les faits présentés étaient bien réels. Par conséquent, le public est trompé en croyant que les interprétations doivent également être vraies, puisque les faits qui les soutiennent sont authentiques.

Ellul exprime cette notion avec clarté : "La propagande est nécessairement fausse lorsqu'elle interprète et colore les faits et leur attribue un sens. Elle est vraie lorsqu'elle présente le fait brut, mais ce n'est que pour établir une prétendue vérité et seulement comme un exemple de l'interprétation qu'elle soutient avec ce fait."

Il serait évident de penser que les masses seraient dans une meilleure situation si elles étaient exemptées de la propagande politique. Cette idée semble raisonnable à première vue : moins de propagande signifierait moins de manipulations, moins d'influences externes, et donc une population plus éclairée et autonome. Cependant, Jacques Ellul exprime un désaccord profond avec cette perspective. Selon lui, la propagande politique joue un rôle essentiel en imposant un sens et une intelligibilité à ce que nous percevons comme le cours chaotique des événements mondiaux. Dans le passé, lorsque les sociétés étaient confrontées à des bouleversements ou à des incertitudes, elles se tournaient souvent vers l'Église pour fournir des explications et donner un sens aux événements. L'Église, avec son autorité spirituelle et morale, offrait des narrations et des cadres d'interprétation pour comprendre le monde.

Aujourd'hui, Ellul soutient que ce rôle d'explication et de structuration du monde a été largement transféré aux politiciens. Les propagandistes politiques, en particulier, jouent un rôle crucial dans ce processus. Ils créent des récits qui attribuent une signification particulière à l'histoire et aux événements contemporains, en plaçant souvent l'État ou le régime en position quasi divine.

Ellul explique : "La propagande élimine l'anxiété découlant des peurs irrationnelles et disproportionnées, car elle donne à l'homme des assurances équivalentes à celles que lui offraient autrefois la religion. Elle lui propose une explication simple et claire du monde dans lequel il vit, certes une explication fausse et éloignée de la réalité, mais une explication qui est évidente et satisfaisante. Elle lui fournit une clé avec laquelle il peut ouvrir toutes les portes. Il n'y a plus de mystère, tout peut être expliqué grâce à la propagande. Elle lui donne des lunettes spéciales à travers lesquelles il peut regarder l'histoire actuelle et comprendre clairement ce qu'elle signifie. Elle lui fournit une ligne directrice avec laquelle il peut retrouver le fil conducteur à travers tous les événements incohérents. Ainsi, le monde cesse d'être hostile et menaçant."

Selon Ellul, la propagande moderne a le potentiel de dégrader le processus démocratique de manière insidieuse. Il explique : "Le but est de faire en sorte que les masses exigent du gouvernement ce que le gouvernement a déjà décidé de faire. Si le gouvernement suit cette procédure, il ne peut plus être qualifié d'autoritaire, car la volonté du peuple réclame ce qui est en train d'être réalisé."

La démocratie repose sur un principe fondamental : l'idée que la population votante a une influence directe sur les politiques mises en œuvre par le gouvernement. En théorie, les citoyens exercent leur pouvoir à travers le vote, en choisissant des représentants et en influençant les décisions politiques qui affectent leur vie quotidienne. 

Ellul explique que la propagande devient un mécanisme par lequel les gouvernements démocratiques peuvent contourner la volonté populaire. Ce phénomène se déroule en deux étapes principales : d'abord, les décideurs politiques élaborent des politiques indépendamment de l'opinion publique. Une fois que les politiques sont définies et mises en place par les détenteurs du pouvoir, la propagande entre en jeu pour façonner et manipuler l'opinion publique. Le rôle de la propagande, dans ce contexte, n'est plus de présenter les faits de manière objective, mais de créer un environnement où les citoyens non seulement acceptent, mais désirent ce que le gouvernement a déjà décidé de faire. 

En d'autres termes, la propagande est utilisée pour convaincre les gens que les décisions politiques prises sont les meilleures possibles et qu'elles correspondent à leurs propres désirs, même si ce n'est pas réellement le cas. Ellul observe que cette dynamique transforme profondément la nature de la démocratie. La confiance des citoyens dans le processus démocratique peut s'éroder, car ils se sentent de plus en plus manipulés et déconnectés des décisions politiques qui les affectent. Les citoyens peuvent croire, à tort, qu'ils participent activement au processus politique, alors que la réalité est que leurs opinions sont façonnées de manière à soutenir des politiques déjà déterminées. En dirigeant l'opinion publique vers une acceptation des politiques imposées, la propagande crée une sorte de faux consensus qui ne reflète pas nécessairement les véritables préférences des électeurs.

L'objectif de Jacques Ellul, en écrivant son livre, était d'avertir le public des dangers réels et profonds que la propagande représente pour la société et pour les individus. Pour lui, la critique de la propagande est essentielle, non pas pour condamner aveuglément le système en place, mais pour éclairer les citoyens sur les mécanismes de manipulation auxquels ils sont exposés. Il explique : "Avertir un système politique de la menace qui pèse sur lui ne signifie pas attaquer ce système, mais c'est le plus grand service que l'on puisse lui rendre. Il en va de même pour l'homme. Le prévenir de sa faiblesse n'est pas tenter de le détruire, mais plutôt l'encourager à se renforcer. J'insiste sur le fait que donner un tel avertissement est un acte de défense de l'homme, que je ne juge pas la propagande avec un détachement olympien et qu'ayant souffert, ressenti et analysé l'impact de la puissance de la propagande sur moi-même, ayant été maintes fois et étant encore aujourd'hui l'objet de la propagande, je veux en parler comme d'une menace qui menace la personnalité entière.